Darkthorn’s Blog

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Sound is a wave of pressure travelling through an elastic medium by mechanical disturbance of the molecules of the medium.

External ear – pinna and other appendages

- funnels sound into ear canal and modifies the sound

Middle ear – tympanum (eardrum), mallus/incus/stapes and Eustachian tube

- optimizes delivery of air-born sounds energy

o ossicles act as a lever to amplify sound

o complex tympanum vibrations

Inner ear – coiled, fluid-filled tube, completely encased in bone except for two membrane covered openings.

- Sound energy transduced into action potentials

- Vestibular and basilar (cochlear partition that contains the organ of corti) membranes

o Haircells possessing steriocilia (contain ion channels) are covered by tectorial membrane (jelly-like)

Transduction

1. Vibration of stapes footplate against oval window causing vibration of cochlear contents

2. Vibration of the cochlear partition increases in size, reaches a peak, then rapidly declines

3. Some ion channels in the steriocillia are open

4. Vibration of cochlear partition moves steriocillia, causing cyclic opening/closing of ion channels

5. Receptor membrane potential is affected by hair cells all opening/closing

Transmission

1. Deoplarisation causes transmitter release to underlying afferent nerve and produces action potentials

2. Opening channels (with sound) increases numbers of action potentials

3. Cochlear vibration at each point corresponds to a different frequency (therefore different nerve fibres)

4. Damage to OHC’s causes hearing loss due to less sensitivity

Sound à accessory structures à vibration of cochlear position à displacement of steriocillia

outer hair cells contract opening of more ion channels

brain modulation of action potentials modulation of transmitter release depolarisation

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Organization of the Nervous System

- one of the two control systems of the body (endocrine system)

- maintains homeostatis through control of the other body systems (first communication system, responsible for higher function)

PNS – nervous system outside the brain/spinal cord

- somatic – innervates skin, muscle, joints

- visceral – innervates internal organs, blood vessels, glands

- Dorsal root ganglia – clusters of neurosn outside spinal cord contain SS axons

Protection of the CNS

- bone – cranium and vertebral column

- meninges – outer dura matter, middle arachanoid matter, innermost pia matter

- cerebrospinal fluid and blood brain barrier

- blood brain barrier – series of capillaries regulating exchange, limiting number of substances allowed into brain, brain damage if brain lacks oxygen or glucose

- ventricles and CSF – cavities inside brain that produce fluid that surrounds and floats the brain

The Brain

- brain stem and cerebellum

- cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon

Cerebral Cortex

- two hemispheres with bilateral symmetry

- language on left side, mental activities well distributed

- grey matter – contains cell bodies and dendrites, reticular formation

- white matter – collections of nerve cell fibres or axons

- corpus callosum, internal capsule, corticle white matter,

- information superhighway, 300+ neuronal axons

- prefrontal association cortex – decision making, creativity, personality

- parietal/occipital/temporal or limbic association cortexes

Dienchephalon – hypothalamus – homeostatic function

- thalamus – primitive sensory processing, relay station

Brain Stem – midbrain/pons/medulla – controls breathing/digestion

Spinal Cord – conducts from skin/joints/muscle

Cerebellum – maintains balance, muscle tone, coordinates voluntary movement

- several parts of the brain are always working together

- ventricular system and CNS – CNS forms the walls of a fluid-filled neural tube, inside of that tube becomes ventricular system, formation of neural tube from ectoderm (tube = CNS, crest = PNS)

- telencephalon – cerebral hemispheres, olfactory bulbs, basal telencephalon

- diencephalon – thalamus, hypothalamus

- forebrain – telencephalon, diencephalon, retina

- cerebral cortex – analyse sensory input and command motor output

- thalamus – axons from thalamus to cortex, carry information from body

- hypothalamus – connected to ANS, brainstem, telencephalon, pituitary gland à control of autonomic nervous system, motivation, neuroendocrine

- midbrain – information conduit from spinal cord to forebrain

- tectum – superior colliocus (information from eyes) vs inferior colliocus (information from ears)

- tegmentum – substancia nigra to control voluntary movement

- hindbrain – cerebellum – movement control

- pons – massive switchboard connecting cerebral cortex to cerebellum

- cochlear nuclei – project axons, auditory nerve terminal

- taste and touch motor neurons

- pyramidal decussation – crossing of axons from one side to another

- brain maturation in adults

- reduction in grey matter

- reflects increased myelination to improve cognitive processing (response inhibition, emotional regulation, planning and organization

- frontal cortex projects to striatal areas involved in learning

This blog/novel/creative writing collection has now been kept for a year! I haven’t got anything in particular planned, but if all goes well, there should be a nice surprise for you all in the making.

Thanks for reading.

~ Darkthorn

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- the brains of warmblooded creatures are larger than those of coldblooded

- constant body temperature allows for stability in chemical reactions

- maintaining a constant temperature requires a 10fold increase in energy use

- more demand on sensory, cognitive and memory capacities as they must find more food, regularly

- selective advantage for temperature regulation

- more access to resources, more freedom in extremes

- combined changes in brain, body and behaviour

- growth of neocortex – better abilities to hear, see and remember

- development of differentiated teeth – able to eat more quickly

- sensory apparatus – turbinal bones and extension of olfactory, 2 additional ossicles and hair cells

- early mammals – small nocturnal predators, with relatively small brain, but larger than reptiles

- early differentiation of the mammalian brain was driven by the need to sustain temperature regulation

- allocortex – hippocampus

- paleocortex – medial temporal lobe

- neocortex – formed with 6 key cellular layers, which are think and differentiated

- reptiles – dorsal cortex only 3 layers deep – molecular, cellular and subcellular (fibres)

- pyriform cortex

- evolution builds on structures that were already present

- duplication of existing area, then differentiation

- paleocortex – medial temporal lobelarge complex brains are rare

- neocortex is disproportionally large in simian > prosimian primates

- humans – have a large proportion of white matter – better connections

- large pyramidal cells, more dendritic cells – specific to association cortex

- a number of unique areas, particularly language areas

Increase in the human life-span is creating a need to maintain physical and cognitive function into old age to reduce the need for assistance in older adults’ lives. A study by Access Economics for Alzheimer’s Australia, estimated that dementia and Alzheimer’s disease touched the lives of at least 2.3 million Australians in 2003. The primary carers, mainly family and friends of the patient, save the economy $16 billion annually by providing support within their own homes (Access Economics, 2003).

A number of lifestyle factors, such as intellectual activity, social interaction, diet and physical activity are all associated with the maintenance of cognitive function, as well as a reduction in risk for neurodegenerative disorders (Vaynman & Gomez-Pinilla, 2006; Karp, 2006; Themanson & Hillman, 2006).

Diet and Nutrition

The elderly are at high risk of nutritional deficiency because of altered taste or smell (and therefore reduced appetite), impaired digestion or absorption of nutrients (due to chronic disease or drug-nutrient interference) and also a limited range of food choices (brought about by less mobility, lower income, and declining health) (Gillette-Guyonnet et al., 2007).

Although benefits from nutritional changes have been investigated, it is difficult to evaluate clinically the effect of diet on maintenance of cognitive function (Milgram et al., 2006). This is because of flawed study conditions, such as lack of statistical control, minimal control of other contribution factors and participant selection bias (Gillette-Guyonnet et al., 2007). However, deficiencies of nutrients are shown overall to have a negative effect on maintaining cognitive function.

Vitamin B

Vitamin B12 deficiencies, as well as lowered folate levels are common in the elderly (de Groot et al., 2004). Studies suggest that the B vitamin (especially B9 and B12) has a protective effect against cognitive decline. Although no official conclusions have been drawn, a slight correlation between vitamin B deficiencies and cognitive decline is apparent, due to the role it plays in the methylation processes essential for brain function (Gillette-Guyonnet et al., 2007).

Antioxidants

Zinc and selenium play an important role in cellular maintenance within the body, including replication, cell respiration and free radical elimination (Savarino et al., 2001). Deficiencies of either of these antioxidants can impact on the aging process.

The effects of zinc on cognitive function (as measured by visual and working memory, attention and reaction time) were examined by Maylor et al. (2006). A healthy sample of adults who had supplements of zinc (30 mg/d) over 3 months was found to have an improved memory and attention (Maylor et al., 2006). These findings could not be generalised to include older adults in poorer mental health however, nor was the study longitudinal to examine the long-term effect of zinc supplements.

When selenium deficiency is present in healthy subjects (greater than 90 years), there is a correlation with higher mortality rate (Savarino et al., 2001). Savarino et al. (2001) suggests that monitoring selenium and zinc levels may also be an effective way of detecting early signs of disease.

Fatty Acids

The research into the role of fatty acids in influencing cognitive decline is inconclusive and contradictive. Gillette-Guyonnet et al. (2007) hypothesises that this is because of the varying lengths of the studies. Overall, it can be tentatively concluded that a high intake of saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids contributes towards increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, whilst polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats do not (Gillette-Guyonnet et al., 2007).

Fish

Unsurprisingly, regular fish consumption (once or twice a week) promotes a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease.  Current clinical trials involve the use of n-3 PUFA to eliminate cross-contaminants and create a more stable basis for results (how much n-3 PUFA is optimal for reducing the risk of dementia) (Gillette-Guyonnet et al., 2007).

Physical Exercise

Older adults who regularly performed physical activities had a higher functional cognitive rate than their sedentary peers (Hillman, Erickson & Kramer, 2008). Research has also shown a positive correlation between aerobic fitness and academic achievement in school-age children (California Department of Education, 2001, as cited in Hillman, Erickson & Kramer, 2008), although further research is required to ascertain the effects of exercise over the entire lifespan.

Animal research, such as that done by Vaynman and Gomez-Pinilla (2006), has shown that exercise has a positive effect on neuronal processes and growth (especially synaptic plasticity and neuronal cell survival), showing the correlation between active behaviours and supporting brain structures. Vaynman and Gomez-Pinilla suggest that the sedentary lifestyle and eating behaviours are impacting negatively on human health, with a rise of metabolic disorders across the entire population.

Studies by Sherwood and Selder (1979), Spirduso (1975) and Spirduso and Clifford (1978) indicated that intensive cardio-respiratory training had a positive impact on maintaining reaction time in older adults. A more recent study by Themanson and Hillman (2006) indicated that cardio-respiratory fitness, but not acute aerobic exercise increases top-down attentional control. In all studies, physical activity had a positive effect on cognition.

Although various cognitive processes benefit from physical activity, some are more obviously influenced. Executive control (attentional resources and cognitive processing) is comparatively better protected than other processes by exercise (Hillman, Erickson & Kramer, 2008).

The mixed pattern of results obtained across studies may be accounted for by the cognitive facets examined, the type of exercise program and the methods of observing fitness improvements (Hillman, Erickson & Kramer, 2008). The confounding variables, such as age, education and race were also not taken into account in several studies, further compromising the results (Hillman, Erickson & Kramer, 2008).

Cognitive Exercise

An early exposure to cognitive exercise and enrichment activity (such as education, work environment characteristics, leisure activity complexity and specific cognitive training) appears to protect against age-related cognitive decline and the common neurodegenerative disorder, dementia (Milgram et al., 2006).

Education

Levels of education have an inversely proportional relationship with the likelihood of dementia development (Wilson et al., 2002, as cited in Milgram et al., 2006). Mental vitality, verbal and non-verbal memory and conceptualisation are also positively affected by higher levels of education (Butler et al., 1996; Albert et al., 1995). High levels of linguistic ability, nurtured by education at an early age, are shown to be associated with lower cognitive impairment and less symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease later in life (Riley et al., 2005).

Work Complexity

The complexity of work, as defined by requirements of thought and independent judgement, also has a positive effect on cognitive performance and maintenance at an older age (Mulatu & Schooler, 1999). Mulatu and Schooler (1999) also looked at the psychological and socio-demographic characteristics of participants, and concluded that these were good predictors of cognitive health, having effects on performance even after 20 years.

Leisure Activity

Wilson et al. (2002, as cited in Milgram et al., 2006) looked at seven measures of leisure activity and discovered that the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease was reduced when the activities were more complex.

Cognitive Training

Although specific cognitive training has an overall positive effect on attention, generally only the specific function targeted by the training is noticeably different in performance levels (Milgram et al., 2006).

Neurobiological Correlations

Anderson and Grady (2001, as cited in Milgram et al., 2006) found that in older subjects, the overall increase in cerebral blood flow is less than in younger subjects, but the spatial extent of activation is greater. These results, from a set of normal older adults, showed that aging is naturally associated with functional reorganization, which provides support for the cognitive aging reserve hypothesis (Milgram et al., 2006).

Animal studies, mainly in rats, have shown an increase in magnitude of hippocampal depth (endothelial cell proliferation) when exposed to stimulating environments (Ekstrand, Hellsten & Tingstro?m, 2008). This same study suggests that raised cortisol concentrations in older patients (such as is produced by high stress levels) may lead to reduction in endothelial cell formation, and corresponding impaired mental function (Ekstrand et al., 2008)

Hypotheses

Brain reserve, as determined by pre-cognitive decline neuronal numbers and level of neuronal compensation (the use of different brain networks in place of damaged structures), is the threshold of brain damage that can be sustained (for a given individual) before symptoms of decline are clinically noticeable (Stern. Y., 2006, as cited in Galluzi et al., 2008). The ‘Cognitive Aging Reserve Hypothesis’ concludes that this neuroplasiticity is linked to environmental (experience and drugs) and biological (eg. neurogenesis and synaptic sprouting) factors, enabling normal cognitive function despite the presence of brain pathology (Galluzzi et al., 2008).

An alternative hypothesis, the ‘Disuse Hypothesis of Cognitive Aging’, assigns the loss of fluid intelligence to reduced cognitive exercise (such as that brought about by retirement) (Tranter & Koutstaal, 2008). By providing stimulating mental exercises to determine the relationship with positive changes in problem solving and flexible thinking performance, Tranter & Koutstaal (2008) concluded that even within a short time span (10-12 weeks), fluid intelligence could be significantly improved by cognitive exercise.

Other Factors

Social Networks

A comprehensive large scale study (n = 1473) by Fratiglioni et al. (2000) found that participating in social activities and having close social ties with family and friends provided protection from dementia, even after taking into account variables such as age, sex, education, and initial cognitive level. Karp et al. (2006) concluded, at the completion of a three year study, that cognitive, social and physical engagement all served to decrease the risk of dementia. The study examined leisure activities carried out by older adults as a complex measure of all three areas (Karp et al., 2006).

Inflammation

Eriksson et al. (2008) found that atopic disorders such as asthma, eczema and rhinitis were associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease, while an asthma history indicated a shorter life expectancy after diagnosis. The use of the twin study method minimised genetic and environmental confounds.

Genetics

The ApoE gene, as well as the GAB2 gene, increases the risk of developing Alzheimer’s Disease, but are not definitive determinates (Albert, 1996). Although increased risk is associated with two copies of the ApoE 4 allele or ApoE 3,4 genotype, having these genes does not always result in the development of Alzheimer’s Disease, indicating the influence of many environmental factors (Albert, 1996).

Although very little can be done to change genetics, being able to identify elderly people most at risk of developing Alzheimer’s Disease will make early intervention measures (such as increased exercise or cognitive activities) more effective at preventing dementia from rapidly progressing.

Conclusion

In most studies, it was found that although cognitive function improved with application of physical or mental exercise or dietary changes, it was difficult to ascertain the level of benefit obtained. Research into education and work complexity earlier in life generally showed results that showed an increase in relative cognitive function in older adults, but was inconclusive as to when applying cognitive exercise would be most beneficial in maintaining function. Studies indicated that exercise in each stage of life had a positive effect on cognitive function within the time frame of the study, but further longitudinal studies would provide a more informative basis for the effects of exercise across the entire human lifespan.

References

Access Economics (2003). The Dementia Epidemic: Economic Impact and Positive Solutions for Australia. Retrieved August 29, 2008 from http://www.alzheimers.org.au/upload/EpidemicFullReportMarch2003.pdf

Albert, M.S. et al. (1995). Predictors of cognitive change in older persons. Psychol. Aging, 10, 578-589.

Albert, M. S. (1996). Cognitive and neurobiologic markers of early Alzheimer disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 13547-13551.

Butler, S.M., Ashford, J.W., & Snowdon, D.A. (1996). Age, education and changes in the mini-mental state exam scores of older women: findings from the Nun Study. J. Am. Geratric. Soc. 44, 675-681.

Ekstrand, J., Hellsten, J., & Tingstro?m, A. (2008). Environmental enrichment, exercise and corticosterone affect endothelial cell proliferation in adult rat hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience Letters, 442 (3), 203-207.

Eriksson, U.K. et al. (2008). Asthma, Eczema, Rhinitis and the Risk for Dementia. Dementia and geriatric cognitive disorders, 25 (2), 148.

Fratiglioni, L., Wang, H.X., Ericsson, K., Maytan, M. & Winblad, B. (2000). Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study. Lancet, 355, 1315-1319.

de Groot, L., Verheijden, M.W., de Henauw, S. et al. (2004). Life style, nutritional status, health, and mortality in elderly people across Europe: a review of the longitudinal results of the SENECA study. J. Gerontology Med. Sci., 59A (12), 1277-1285.

Galluzzi, S., Lanni, C., Pantoni, L., Filippi, M., & Frisoni, G.B. (2008). White matter lesions in the elderly: Pathophysiological hypothesis on the effect on brain plasticity and reserve. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 273 (1-2), 3-9.

Gillette-Guyonnet, S., Abellan Van Kan, G., Andrieu, S., Barberger-Gateau, P. et al. (2007). INNA task force on nutrition and cognitive decline with aging. Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 11,132-152.

Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 9, 58-65.

Karp, A. et al. (2006). Mental, physical, and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dement. Geriat. Cogn. Disord. 21, 65-73.

Maylor, E.A. et al. (2006). Effects of zinc supplementation on cognitive function in healthy middle-aged and older adults: The ZENITH study. British Journal of Nutrition, 96 (4), 752-760.

Milgram, N. W., Siwak-Tapp, C. T., Araujo, J., & Head, E. (2006). Neuroprotective effects of cognitive enrichment. Ageing Research Reviews, 5, 345-369.

Mulatu, M. S. & Schooler, C. (1999). Longitudinal effects of occupational, psychological, and social background characteristics on health of older workers. Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 896, 406-408.

Riley, K.P., Snowdon, D. A., Desrosiers M.F., & Markesbery, W.R. (2005). Early life linguistic ability, late life cognitive function, and neuropathology: findings from the Nun Study, Neurobiol. Aging, 26, 341-347.

Savarino, L. et al. (2001). Serum concentrations of zinc and selenium in elderly people: Results in healthy nonagenarians/centenarians. Experimental Gerontology, 36 (2), 327-339.

Sherwood, D. E. & Selder, D. J. (1979). Cardiorespiratory health, reaction time and aging. Med. Sci. Sports, 11, 186-189.

Spirduso, W. W. (1975). Reaction and movement time as a function of age and physical activity level. J. Gerontol. 30, 435-440.

Spirduso, W. W. & Clifford, P. (1978). Replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction and movement times. J. Gerontol. 33, 26-30.

Themanson, J. R. & Hillman, C. H. (2006). Cardiorespiratory fitness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Neurosci. 141, 757-767.

Tranter, L. J., & Koutstaal, W. (2008). Age and flexible thinking: An experimental demonstration of the beneficial effects of increased cognitively stimulating activity on fluid intelligence in healthy older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 15, 184-207.

Vaynman, S. & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2006). Revenge of the “sit”: how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health though molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity. J. Neurosci. Res. 84, 699-715.

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- Short term memory – a collection of mental processes that permits information to be held temporarily in an accessible state, in the service of some mental task.

- Short term store – interpret information selected for transfer into sensory store, maintain information, transfer and review information from long term memory – capacity of 7+/- 2 items, improved by chunking

- Serial position effect

o Primacy effect – improved recall for items at the start of the list (these items are sufficiently rehearsed for long term memory)

o Recency effect – improved recall for last items (eliminated if rehearsal is prohibited)

o Sternberg’s four stage process

§ Encode probe à compare with memory à binary decision à execute motor response

§ The more items required to recall, the more reaction time required

§ Method of search is self-terminating or serial exhaustive

o Duration of about 18 sec

- Working memory – maintains notion of a limited capacity store used to hold information needed for current problem solving

o Phonological loop – inner ear and inner voice – visuospatial sketchpad

- Control processes – attention, rehearsal, coding, retrieval, decision making

Islam – Logbook Exercise 6.3

How do the Five Pillars express islam, submissiveness?

The basic activities in which a Muslim demonstrates his commitment and submissiveness to Allah are the Five Pillars. These include the profession of faith, payer, alms giving, fasting in Ramadan and Pilgrimage.

Shahada, the first pillar of Islam, is the profession of faith by the Muslim (Crotty, 2005). It stems from the proclamation that Allah is God above all and that Muhammad is his Prophet; the kalimah recited by Muslims daily to show their submissiveness to the one God, Allah (Crotty, 2005). This phrase is repeated by Muslims throughout their lives, from the moment of their birth to their death, forever declaring their trust and faith in Allah and Muhammad to guide them correctly through life.

The second pillar is salat, the prayers said five times a day to Allah (Crotty, 2005). Salat is intended to focus the Muslim’s mind on Allah, and express their gratitude, surrender and devotion to him (Crotty, 2005). The devotee’s actions and words to Allah express their absolute surrender, a main part of this being bowing and prostrations on the floor as well as asking for his forgiveness (Welch, 1998). This prayer and submission to Allah is said to ‘restrain [one] from shameful and evil deeds’ and to have ‘remembrance of Allah [as] the greatest’ (Qur’an 29:40). Allah is the greatest, the Muslims must bow to him in submission.

The annual alms giving by Muslims, zakat, is an essential part of islam (Crotty, 2005). It is the personal responsibility of a Muslim to help others less fortunate than themselves, in order to eliminate inequality within the Islamic community (Welch, 1998). Although initially alms giving was limited to donating the surplus in a Muslim household, eventually it became a fixed proportion of a Muslim’s income (Welch, 1998). This donation of goods to the needy is an expression of submission and equality, no one household is more worthy of wealth, especially in today’s society of materialism (Welch, 1998; Watt, 1987). Voluntary charity (sadaqah) is a way to achieve further divine reward (Encyclopaedia of Islam).

During Ramadan, Muslims must fast (no drinking, eating, smoking or sexual intercourse between dawn and sunset) to uphold the fourth pillar of Islam, saum (Crotty, 2005). It is said that during the month of Ramadan, the Qur’an was revealed to the Muslims for the first time (Crotty, 2005). This period of fasting shows the Muslim’s submission to Allah’s rules, forgoing earthly pleasures in order to please him (Welch, 1998).

The pilgrimage to Mecca, hajj, is expected of a Muslim at least once in their lifetime (Crotty, 2005). It needs to occur during the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar, but it is not expected that females should make the pilgrimage (Welsh, 1998). The pilgrim’s community honours them for making the pilgrimage, but this should not be the primary reason for making the journey – it should be an expression of devotion and submission to Allah (Welsh, 1998).

The Five Pillars of Islam are present in throughout a Muslim’s life. The daily prayers and expressions of kalima, the annual fasting and alms giving, as well as the pilgrimage to Mecca, communicate the devotion to Allah and submission to Muhammad’s teachings.

Word Count – 525 words

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- Long term memory – Tulving

o Procedural – skills, unconscious, automatic

o Semantic – factual knowledge, impersonal

o Episodic – autobiographical, time and place

- Encoding processes

o Repetition

o Rehearsal – maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal

o Elaboration – engaging in processes that enhance understanding

o Organisation – structuring and restructuring of information as it is stored

o Imagery – mentally picturing a stimulus to form a memory – verbal vs imaginal code

- Retrieval processes

o Determine what is actually remembered about an event

o Encoding specificity principle – whatever is stored is determined by what is perceived and how it is encoded (state/context dependant learning)

o Cued recall is greater than free recall

- Sematic Network Accounts

o Knowledge organised in a network on interconnected nodes

§ Node – concept or idea

§ Linked nodes show a semantic relationship

§ Spreading activation

Forgetting

- A decrease in ability to remember a previously formed memory

- Assumptions – effective prior encoding – issue is retrieval of information

- Complications – the reconstructive nature of memory

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Synapse – Speed and Efficiency

Presynaptic – neurotransmitter ready for release (release mechanisms present)

Synapse – effective communication pathway (where transmitter removal occurs)

Postsynaptic – receptive molecules (five sub units, each with 4 membrane spanning regions)

Neurotransmitter – synthesized in advance, then stored in vesicles

Within a bouton – similar numbers of neurotransmitter per vesicle, vesicles anchored to filaments (and docking sites)

Postsynaptic receptors become ion channels when a transmitter binds the TM2 helices move apart to allow ions through (ionotropic channels), then close. The neurotransmitter is able to bind to a large extracellular domain.

- sodium enters cells as potassium leaves

- net positive influx, depolarization

- graded fast response

each release site dispenses only one vesicle per action potential

quantal release results in EPSPs (ESPs) of approximately equal value

- amplitude depends on number and properties of receptors

- reaches threshold and increases probability of opening Na+ channels

Cl- inhibits the action potential, preventing it from reaching the threshold

Glutamate & Acetylcholine – excitatory ionotropic receptors

GABA and Glycine – inhibitory ionotropic receptors

Australian Aboriginal Religion – Logbook Exercise 4.3

Outline and comment on three functions of ritual in Aboriginal Societies. Refer to examples of rituals.

Australian Aboriginal rituals are impossible to categorize simply, partially because of the wide spread of different tribes across the continent (Stanner, 1976). Stanner (1976) discusses the failed attempt to classify major rituals into four categories; commemorative, increase, initiation and death rites. Religious rituals of the Australian Aboriginals have been classified under two broad headings instead: those for individual progression through life and those for meeting the needs of the community (Edwards, 2005). Although it is difficult to exactly define ritual types, the functions of ritual are relatively simple, if overlapping. For example, the Central Australian initiation rites to impart knowledge to adolescents as well as induct them into adulthood, the Northern Australian mortuary rites which also function to provide a social event within the community and the increase rituals to augment food supplies and fertility (Edwards, 2005; Colless & Donovan, 1998).

Through ritual initiation, young Aboriginal men are introduced to the mysteries of the Ancestral Spirit Beings and the knowledge of the tribe (Edwards, 2005). Indeed, some of the ‘senior rites are more revelatory than initiatory’ (Stanner, 1976, p. 27). Initiation rites are functionally important for ensuring that the right people have the knowledge required for the continuance of life, and instate a boy as a man of the tribe (Stanner, 1976). Although data about rites is restricted from the uninitiated, it is known that for the Arunta and Ilpirra tribes of Central Australian, there are four specific initiation ceremonies: painting and throwing the boy into the air, circumcision, subincision and the fire ceremony (Spencer & Gillen, 1899).

Mortuary rites, at death and burial, allow a dying/dead clansman’s ghost to break earthly ties and shepherd this soul towards the clan country, where it can remain or go on to fill another human host (Stanner, 1976). These rites are generally prolonged more than those of other transition rites (such as puberty initiations) to make certain that the spirit has passed on, and will not remain to haunt or disturb the living (Berndt & Berndt, 1988).The gradual detachment from the deceased in ritual, and the similar treatment of their belongings (destroying intimate possessions) is an integral part of Northern Australian rites (Widlok, as cited in Venbrux, 2007). A person’s values and worldview are conveyed in death rites, completing their life journey (Metcalf & Huntington, 1991, as cited in Venbrux, 2007).

The maintenance or increase rites are performed to ensure that sacred sites remain filled with the specific kind of life associate with them, and to enhance food supplies, fertility or love between a man and woman (Stanner, 1976). Some rites are believed to assist in maintaining and sustaining the fertility of the countryside in which the Aboriginals hunted their food (Berndt, 1974). These rituals were also important for bringing together different clans to share knowledge and find mates (Spencer & Gillen, 1899).

Ritual in Australian Aboriginal religion, although difficult to categorize by European standards, functions to bring together different Aboriginal clans for events such as birth, death and initiation, and promote the important sense of community within the tribe.

Word Count – 507 words