Buddhism - Logbook Exercise 2.1

From your understanding of Buddhism to date, are features such as dogmatism, exclusivism and paternalism characteristic or uncharacteristic of Buddhism. Give reasons for your answers.

The Japanese Buddhist movements, mentioned in Fenner (2005, p. 40), are said to be ‘strongly nationalistic, dogmatic, missionary, charismatic and paternalistic’. These characteristics are not generally typical of Buddhism, except that of dogmatism. Japanese society has always been strongly paternalistic and nationalistic (Huberich, 1902), while the missionary component is likely a reaction to the early Christian movements to convert the Japanese (Ion, 1945). Other Buddhist cultures do not have these characteristics (Fenner, 2005).

Buddhist teaching declares that all people can achieve nirvana by following strict meditation (Fenner, 2005). As far as exclusivism is concerned in Buddhism, it is only that each individual must follow their own meditative practices and path to enlightment (Fenner, 2005). The three practices of Buddhism are available for everyone to follow, although while wholesome behavior is present in all Buddhists, mental integration and insight are usually only practiced by dedicated Buddhists (Fenner, 2005). Buddhists are only limited to what they themselves have the time or capability to achieve; it is not ordained by the Buddhist teachers.

Paternalism is ‘the overriding of a person’s wishes or intentional actions for beneficent reasons’ (Beauchamp and Childress, as cited in Keown, 1998). Keown (1998) states that the Lotus Suutra, the Buddhist teachings, is weak paternalism. However, in the origins of Buddhist teaching, the first Buddha was initially reluctant to teach, but eventually became passionate about it (Fenner, 2005). Thurman (1983, p. 30) reinforces this by saying ‘the taking of a life cannot be justified in terms of a social good’, essentially Buddhists must not presume that they know what would be best for the social whole. Buddhists tend to adopt a ‘hands-off’ approach to social interventions, not interfering (Fenner, 2005). Although Buddhism teaches that it is important for people to follow the three practices (wholesome behavior, mental integration and insight) in order to live a fulfilling life, it does not presume to direct the unenlightened (Fenner, 2005).

Even as Buddhists reject dogmatic views as being ‘constraining and limiting’ (Fenner, 2005, p. 36), the ways they practice are dogmatic. Buddhism’s anti-violence principles are often impractical and incompletely followed (‘Strong lessons for Engaged Buddhists’, 1993). Although there is nothing wrong with aiming to act without anger, and not giving in to hatred, some Buddhists use this to self-righteously ignore any criticism of their religion (‘Strong lessons for Engaged Buddhists’, 1993). By avoiding confrontations entirely, Buddhists are conveniently exempt from having to deal with social tension (Fenner, 2005). Fenner (2005) continues that a Buddhist must take some sort of social action in order to promote a society in which Buddhism is able to be practiced well.

While Buddhism may be unintentionally construed toward dogmatism through its passive acceptance of the society it exists in, other qualities such as paternalism and exclusivism are not present. Japanese Buddhists may contain paternalistic, nationalistic and missionary components within their religious beliefs, but this is not typical within Buddhist history.

Word Count – 482 words

- Carbohydrates

o Brain only stores enough glucose for 10 mins, must have a constant supply – 75% for signalling, 25% of basic cellular activity

o Glucose is critical for the production of neurotransmitters (hypoglycaemia leading to coma and death)

- Amino Acids

o 8 essential amino acids

o Building blocks for new proteins, neurotransmitters and horemones, provide carbon for TCA cycle

o Tryptophan – precursor of serotonin, lack causes depression, irritability or aggression, also affects circadian rhythms

o Phenylalanine – tyrosine, required for dopamine and noradrenaline, low levels cause a small lowering of mood and alertness

o Disorders of amino acid metabolism (caused by lack of enzymes/cofactors) create toxicity in the nervous system

- Vitamins

o Synthesis of neurotransmitters, energy metabolism and health of the blood vessels

o B vitamins – energy production, neurotransmitter synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Deficiencies cause learning difficulties, irritability, seizures, bad memory skills, pain (paraesthesia) and blindness (nerve injury).

o Folate- important in foetal development.

o Thiamine deficiency causes memory loss, ataxia and opthtialmoplegia.

o Fat soluable vitamins – A (visual pigments), D (prevents neurodegenerative diseases), E (retinal abnormalities, dementia) and K (retina protection).

- Minerals

o Similar to vitamins in function, a cofactor for antioxidant enzymes

o Iron – deficiencies cause apathy, irritability, lethargy, hypoactivity, decreased cognition

o Zinc – affects memory, taste/smell, causes oxidative stress

o Copper/Iodine – can cause ataxia, retardation, seizures, impaired responses

o Selenium – deficiency causes increased dopamine concentration, excess causes inflammation, convulsions, paralysis

o Magnesium – stabilises cellular compartments, part of ATP synthesis, metabolism

- Fatty Acids

o Can be used as a source of energy by the body, but serve the brain as myelin sheaths.

o Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency can cause problems with alertness, anxiety, learning and memory, also problems with the retina.

o Also hearing, taste and smell are affected.

- fast response to perturbation via nerves

- pervasive into glands, smooth muscle, heart, eyes, sex organs

- flexible, two divisions in most organs, with more than one neurotransmitter involved

- function of maintaining homeostasis – sympathetic or parasympathetic

- cortex, limbic and thalamus also involved in ANS

Sympathetic

- ‘flight or fight’

- division from preganglionic cell bodies and axonal output

- modulated from higher senses

- ionotropic – ATP

- metabotropic – extra juctional (ATP + peptides)

- noradrenaline (norepinephrine) – receptor a1 (constriction), a2, B (relaxation)

- precursor put in vesicle, then NA is synthesized

- uptake I & II (blocked by cocaine)

- COMT – methylates for a contraction

- MAO – de-amination for B relaxation

- ATP cotransmission

- acts on purinergic receptors

- junctional and extra junctional

Parasympathetic

- ‘rest and digest’

- division from preganglionic cell bodies and axonal output

- brainstem – tears/salivary glands

- metabotropic

- nitric oxide

- very lipid soluble, not stored in vesicles

- synthesized on demand, signaled by influx of cytoplasmic calcium

- powerful inhibitor of smooth muscle contraction

- increase in Ca2+ activates NOS

- synthesizes NO from L-arginine

- NO acts on guanylyl cyclase to reduce smooth muscle Ca2+

- peptides

- acetylcholine

- 5 musacinic receptors

- Ach-ase removes from junction

- Actropene as blocker

- sensory nerves – thin, unmylinated axons (C fibres) and large AS fibres, run the same nerve trunk as efferents in periphery to terminate in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord

- main input to NTS and thalamus to communicate with other neurons

- brainstem outflow to cardiovascular/respiratory/mictunition centers, vagal (parasympathetic) outflow in medulla, rostral ventricular medulla and from CUCM to spinal cord

- NTS – nucleus tractus solitaries – receives information

- PVN – paraventricular nucleus – part of hypothalamus

- LC – locus ceruleus – distributes information

- RULM – rostral ventrolateral medulla – collects information

- CULM – caudal ventrolateral medulla – major output control

- input from – sensory afferent nerves, brainstem, spinal cord

- travels to brain – spinothelamic tract, thalamus

- goes to appropriate center

- output from center – down spinal cord

autonomic ganglia

- meeting place of neuron 1 and neuron 2

- parasympathetic ganglia – embedded in organs

- sympathetic ganglia – chain of beads down each side of spinal cord or in abdominal cavity

- acetylcholine and nicotinic ionotropic receptors

postganglionic neuron

- slow, but divided and branched within tissue

- swellings (varicosities = bouton) contain neurotransmitter

- called a junction, as is coordinating with non-neuronal tissues

Flexibility

- SNS and PNS functionally antagonistic

- more than one transmitter

- more than one receptor for each transmitter

Lock and Key

- Lock – receptors, uptake pumps and degrading enzymes

- Key – neurotransmitter and agonist drugs, blocking drugs (antagonists)

Adrenal medulla – become autonomic ganglion cells and adrenal medullary cells

Energy – white and brown fat levels, leptin signals homeostatic levels

Cardiovascular – response by upper and lower limbs to cause pain, heart rate increases and blood vessels constrict.

- SNS in heart – signals need for more blood when heart works harder

- Heat stroke – when temperature levels rise dangerously SNS activates

- Cutanaeous vasoconstriction, stop sweating, blood cooling stops

Human Sexual Response

- a balance of PNS and SNS

- penile artery – Nitric Oxide – vasodilator (PNS)

- noradrenaline – vasoconstrictor (SNS)

- vas deferens – noradenaline – slow contraction (SNS)

- ATP – fast contraction (SNS)

- Sympathetic – contracts tubes, constricts arteries (ejaculation)

- Parasympathetic – dilates penile arteries (erection)