Judaism – Logbook Exercise 3.1

How does the idea that Judaism has been superseded lead to a negative view of persisting Judaism? What statements about Judaism as a religion, and of the Jewish leadership and people, express this negative view in the New Testament?

Many major religions, such as Christianity and Islam, have benefited from the early influence of Judaism (Zuesse, 2005). This leads these religions to believe that their beliefs have ‘properly’ interpreted some of the Jewish principles and that Judaism should fade into the background (Zuesse, 2005). As Judaism remains as a complete independent set of beliefs, other religions feel threatened by its continued existence.

The perspective on Judaism by Geiger in the 19^th century probably did not assist Judaism in promoting a positive image. Deutero-Isaiah (as cited in Martin, 1974, p. 240) had set Judaism apart from the other major religions, stating that Judaism served as ‘a light to the nations’. Geiger further extended this idea to the concept of ‘world redemption’ (Martin, 1974, p. 240) offered by Judaism. This clashes with the idea that Judaism has been superseded by Christianity for example. Christians taught that their way was the best religion (after having included elements of Jewish belief), and that Judaism would therefore have nothing new to offer towards humanity’s enlightenment.

The Jewish Torah gifts many of its insights to the Christian Bible, in both the New and Old Testaments (Horbury, 1998). However Christianity’s dislike of Judaism, and fear of its people, is apparent in the New Testament. Jewish rejection of Jesus, as in John 8:39-59 or John 10:22-42, is cited in the Bible in order to foster Christian rejection of all the Jews. Also, in John 12:42, it is said that Christians avoided mentioning their belief in Jesus for fear of rejection from the synagogues.

The Gospel of John the Evangelist describes the Jews as Jesus’ enemies, because the Jews demand Christ’s death (John 10:22–42, John 12:37–43) after initially persecuting him for breaking the Sabbath (John 5:16-18). The death of Christ may be blamed solely on the Jews in a Christian’s mind according to John, although the other three gospels do not implicate the Jews. Seemingly, this Gospel was written to strengthen the prejudice of Christians against Jews, by countering the unorthodox beliefs of Jews.

As Jesus, as well as the other disciples, was Jewish, it is rather incongruous of John to condemn all Jews for having rejected Christ. However, arguments by recent scholars have concluded that the term ‘the Jews’, here refers only to the Jewish religious authorities (particularly the Judean Jews) who were implicated in Jesus’ death. Even after Jesus’ death, the New Testament provides examples of the Jewish religious authorities using force against Jesus’ followers (Acts 7:53, Acts 8:3, 2 Cor. 11:24).

Judaism is not a static religion, being reformed as history progresses by rabbis such as Geiger and Frankel (Martin, 1974). Although its essential values have been maintained (and also incorporated into other religions), Judaism has evolved and been reinterpreted in order to spread and maintain its positive influence on other nations (Martin, 1974). The current negative view of Judaism is a product of uncomfortable newer religions being unable to see the existence of Judaism as relevant. By only looking at the negative aspects of Jewish worship, some Christians have even justified to themselves the horrific bloodshed that has occurred between members of the two religions.

Word Count – 523 words

- Cognition – the collection of metal processes and activities used in perceiving, thinking and understanding.

- Cognitive psychology – how people learn, store and use information

- Early psychologists

o Wundt – introspection

o Titchner – structuralism

o James – functionalism

o Ebbinghour – scientific method

o Behaviourism vs neobehaviourism – SàR SàOàR

o Chomsky – linguistics – use of language is governed by internal rules

o Cognitive revolution – sensory à working à long term memory

§ Parallel distributed processing

§ Neural networks – the metaphysical model

- Memory – the mental processes of retaining information for later use and reteiving such information and the mental storage system that enables this

- Paradigms – study phase (encoding) vs test pahse (retrieval

o Recall – free/cued/serial

o Recognition

o Reaction time

Thank Randy at Something Positive for this.

- The information processing approach

o Sensory store (input device) à Short term store (central processor) à Long term store (library of files).

- Stage theory

sensory inputà Sensory memory àattentionà Working memory àencodingà Long term memory

Un-attending info. Un-rehearsed info Some info. lost

is quickly lost is quickly lost over time

- Levels of processing approach

o Level of retention depends on depth of processing during encoding

§ Orthography à phonology à Semantic

- Sensory memory – large capacity, pre-categorical with brief duration

- Iconic memory – visual

- Echoic memory – auditory – whole vs partial report

- Von Wright – performance equals whole report, supports pre-categorical

- Attention – the process of directing and focussing certain psychological resources

- Selected listening – dichotic listening – filtering out unwanted information, selective filter hearing – hear what makes more sense

- Automaticity – automatic vs controlled processes, stroop effect (colours of words vs the meaning of the word) – reading response interferes with the colour naming of words printed in a conflicting colour – word recognition is automatic

Buddhism – Logbook Exercise 2.1

From your understanding of Buddhism to date, are features such as dogmatism, exclusivism and paternalism characteristic or uncharacteristic of Buddhism. Give reasons for your answers.

The Japanese Buddhist movements, mentioned in Fenner (2005, p. 40), are said to be ‘strongly nationalistic, dogmatic, missionary, charismatic and paternalistic’. These characteristics are not generally typical of Buddhism, except that of dogmatism. Japanese society has always been strongly paternalistic and nationalistic (Huberich, 1902), while the missionary component is likely a reaction to the early Christian movements to convert the Japanese (Ion, 1945). Other Buddhist cultures do not have these characteristics (Fenner, 2005).

Buddhist teaching declares that all people can achieve nirvana by following strict meditation (Fenner, 2005). As far as exclusivism is concerned in Buddhism, it is only that each individual must follow their own meditative practices and path to enlightment (Fenner, 2005). The three practices of Buddhism are available for everyone to follow, although while wholesome behavior is present in all Buddhists, mental integration and insight are usually only practiced by dedicated Buddhists (Fenner, 2005). Buddhists are only limited to what they themselves have the time or capability to achieve; it is not ordained by the Buddhist teachers.

Paternalism is ‘the overriding of a person’s wishes or intentional actions for beneficent reasons’ (Beauchamp and Childress, as cited in Keown, 1998). Keown (1998) states that the Lotus Suutra, the Buddhist teachings, is weak paternalism. However, in the origins of Buddhist teaching, the first Buddha was initially reluctant to teach, but eventually became passionate about it (Fenner, 2005). Thurman (1983, p. 30) reinforces this by saying ‘the taking of a life cannot be justified in terms of a social good’, essentially Buddhists must not presume that they know what would be best for the social whole. Buddhists tend to adopt a ‘hands-off’ approach to social interventions, not interfering (Fenner, 2005). Although Buddhism teaches that it is important for people to follow the three practices (wholesome behavior, mental integration and insight) in order to live a fulfilling life, it does not presume to direct the unenlightened (Fenner, 2005).

Even as Buddhists reject dogmatic views as being ‘constraining and limiting’ (Fenner, 2005, p. 36), the ways they practice are dogmatic. Buddhism’s anti-violence principles are often impractical and incompletely followed (‘Strong lessons for Engaged Buddhists’, 1993). Although there is nothing wrong with aiming to act without anger, and not giving in to hatred, some Buddhists use this to self-righteously ignore any criticism of their religion (‘Strong lessons for Engaged Buddhists’, 1993). By avoiding confrontations entirely, Buddhists are conveniently exempt from having to deal with social tension (Fenner, 2005). Fenner (2005) continues that a Buddhist must take some sort of social action in order to promote a society in which Buddhism is able to be practiced well.

While Buddhism may be unintentionally construed toward dogmatism through its passive acceptance of the society it exists in, other qualities such as paternalism and exclusivism are not present. Japanese Buddhists may contain paternalistic, nationalistic and missionary components within their religious beliefs, but this is not typical within Buddhist history.

Word Count – 482 words

- Carbohydrates

o Brain only stores enough glucose for 10 mins, must have a constant supply – 75% for signalling, 25% of basic cellular activity

o Glucose is critical for the production of neurotransmitters (hypoglycaemia leading to coma and death)

- Amino Acids

o 8 essential amino acids

o Building blocks for new proteins, neurotransmitters and horemones, provide carbon for TCA cycle

o Tryptophan – precursor of serotonin, lack causes depression, irritability or aggression, also affects circadian rhythms

o Phenylalanine – tyrosine, required for dopamine and noradrenaline, low levels cause a small lowering of mood and alertness

o Disorders of amino acid metabolism (caused by lack of enzymes/cofactors) create toxicity in the nervous system

- Vitamins

o Synthesis of neurotransmitters, energy metabolism and health of the blood vessels

o B vitamins – energy production, neurotransmitter synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Deficiencies cause learning difficulties, irritability, seizures, bad memory skills, pain (paraesthesia) and blindness (nerve injury).

o Folate- important in foetal development.

o Thiamine deficiency causes memory loss, ataxia and opthtialmoplegia.

o Fat soluable vitamins – A (visual pigments), D (prevents neurodegenerative diseases), E (retinal abnormalities, dementia) and K (retina protection).

- Minerals

o Similar to vitamins in function, a cofactor for antioxidant enzymes

o Iron – deficiencies cause apathy, irritability, lethargy, hypoactivity, decreased cognition

o Zinc – affects memory, taste/smell, causes oxidative stress

o Copper/Iodine – can cause ataxia, retardation, seizures, impaired responses

o Selenium – deficiency causes increased dopamine concentration, excess causes inflammation, convulsions, paralysis

o Magnesium – stabilises cellular compartments, part of ATP synthesis, metabolism

- Fatty Acids

o Can be used as a source of energy by the body, but serve the brain as myelin sheaths.

o Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency can cause problems with alertness, anxiety, learning and memory, also problems with the retina.

o Also hearing, taste and smell are affected.

- fast response to perturbation via nerves

- pervasive into glands, smooth muscle, heart, eyes, sex organs

- flexible, two divisions in most organs, with more than one neurotransmitter involved

- function of maintaining homeostasis – sympathetic or parasympathetic

- cortex, limbic and thalamus also involved in ANS

Sympathetic

- ‘flight or fight’

- division from preganglionic cell bodies and axonal output

- modulated from higher senses

- ionotropic – ATP

- metabotropic – extra juctional (ATP + peptides)

- noradrenaline (norepinephrine) – receptor a1 (constriction), a2, B (relaxation)

- precursor put in vesicle, then NA is synthesized

- uptake I & II (blocked by cocaine)

- COMT – methylates for a contraction

- MAO – de-amination for B relaxation

- ATP cotransmission

- acts on purinergic receptors

- junctional and extra junctional

Parasympathetic

- ‘rest and digest’

- division from preganglionic cell bodies and axonal output

- brainstem – tears/salivary glands

- metabotropic

- nitric oxide

- very lipid soluble, not stored in vesicles

- synthesized on demand, signaled by influx of cytoplasmic calcium

- powerful inhibitor of smooth muscle contraction

- increase in Ca2+ activates NOS

- synthesizes NO from L-arginine

- NO acts on guanylyl cyclase to reduce smooth muscle Ca2+

- peptides

- acetylcholine

- 5 musacinic receptors

- Ach-ase removes from junction

- Actropene as blocker

- sensory nerves – thin, unmylinated axons (C fibres) and large AS fibres, run the same nerve trunk as efferents in periphery to terminate in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord

- main input to NTS and thalamus to communicate with other neurons

- brainstem outflow to cardiovascular/respiratory/mictunition centers, vagal (parasympathetic) outflow in medulla, rostral ventricular medulla and from CUCM to spinal cord

- NTS – nucleus tractus solitaries – receives information

- PVN – paraventricular nucleus – part of hypothalamus

- LC – locus ceruleus – distributes information

- RULM – rostral ventrolateral medulla – collects information

- CULM – caudal ventrolateral medulla – major output control

- input from – sensory afferent nerves, brainstem, spinal cord

- travels to brain – spinothelamic tract, thalamus

- goes to appropriate center

- output from center – down spinal cord

autonomic ganglia

- meeting place of neuron 1 and neuron 2

- parasympathetic ganglia – embedded in organs

- sympathetic ganglia – chain of beads down each side of spinal cord or in abdominal cavity

- acetylcholine and nicotinic ionotropic receptors

postganglionic neuron

- slow, but divided and branched within tissue

- swellings (varicosities = bouton) contain neurotransmitter

- called a junction, as is coordinating with non-neuronal tissues

Flexibility

- SNS and PNS functionally antagonistic

- more than one transmitter

- more than one receptor for each transmitter

Lock and Key

- Lock – receptors, uptake pumps and degrading enzymes

- Key – neurotransmitter and agonist drugs, blocking drugs (antagonists)

Adrenal medulla – become autonomic ganglion cells and adrenal medullary cells

Energy – white and brown fat levels, leptin signals homeostatic levels

Cardiovascular – response by upper and lower limbs to cause pain, heart rate increases and blood vessels constrict.

- SNS in heart – signals need for more blood when heart works harder

- Heat stroke – when temperature levels rise dangerously SNS activates

- Cutanaeous vasoconstriction, stop sweating, blood cooling stops

Human Sexual Response

- a balance of PNS and SNS

- penile artery – Nitric Oxide – vasodilator (PNS)

- noradrenaline – vasoconstrictor (SNS)

- vas deferens – noradenaline – slow contraction (SNS)

- ATP – fast contraction (SNS)

- Sympathetic – contracts tubes, constricts arteries (ejaculation)

- Parasympathetic – dilates penile arteries (erection)

Hinduism – Logbook Exercise 1.3

Why is dharma considered the most important principle around which a Hindu’s life is organized?

Dharma is the most significant belief of Hinduism, organizing an otherwise rough society. Weightman, (1998, p. 279) describes it as the complete ‘right way of living for Hindu’s’, the sum of all teachings offered by the religion itself. Each of dharma’s four levels has far reaching consequences into a Hindu’s life. Dharma is defined in the Sutras and Smritis, as well as in the traditions and teachings passed down by the elders in a Hindu family (Weightman, 1998).

Sanatana dharma, at the cosmic level of dharma, is the law of order that applies to all beings in the universe, decreeing that each must behave according to its inherent nature (Weightman, 1998). Hindus who follow Dharma must respect all living beings non-violently, including respect for the earth and promoting the vegetarian lifestyle (Morales, 2007)

Dharma lends structure to an otherwise uncivilized society. Although it does not define a Hindu’s caste (which derived from the earlier monarchs-to-farmer hierarchy and passed down through families), it is the overarching source of ethics for every caste (sadharana dharma), also decreeing the need to follow one’s own caste rules (varnashrama dharma) (Weightman, 1998). Each individual’s life is ruled by varna dharma – family and society roles, as well as professional and individual duties to the Hindu community (Weightman, 1998). Aspects of life such as marriage, and widow remarriage, are defined by dharma, so too the types of food a particular caste is allowed to eat (Weightman, 1998).

Dharma covers every aspect of a Hindu’s life, and it is a Hindu’s duty to subscribe to its practices. The duty of a Hindu, when following dharma, involves being unselfish and assisting others in society (Biardeau, 1982). By not following dharma, Hindus risk impurity, which taints not only their own lives but those of their descendants, in the cycle of samsara (birth and rebirth) (Weightman, 1998). The concept of karma, that one’s status in the present life is a product of past lives’ actions, is inherently linked with samsara (Weightman, 1998).

Dharma is the universal life principle by which a Hindu must abide. Biardeau (1982) concludes that in the face of India’s increasing industrialization dharma is being contaminated and lost. Officially the caste system no longer exists, yet even non-Hindu Indians (who do not follow dharma explicitly) still adhered to some beliefs of dharma, such as marriage between members of the same caste (Weightman, 1998). Other aspects, such as karma, have been adapted into general Western society. Dharma is being interpreted in different ways, and evolving as society requires it to, just as it did in the past (Magee, 2005). Dharma is truly all-encompassing, and so it is important that a Hindu follows its teachings (albeit in an altered form) in order to live a good and moral life, even if his/her personal beliefs are different (Weightman, 1998).

Word Count – 469 words

Quiet Loner Soul

PNS

• • nerve fibres regenerate depending on their location

• • Schwann cells guide the regeneration of cut axons

CNS

• • repair and functional regeneration is limited

  • myelin associated inhibitory factors

  • astrocyte scar formation and age related decline in repair mechanisms

Spinal Cord Damage

• • mainly due to cell death, inflammation, expanding cysts and glial scarring, also degenerating tracts, demylination and atrophied muscles

  • some spontaneous repair – gliogenesis, sprouting axons, cortical sensory motor arrangement, some rubriospinal compensation

  • prevents expansion of critical damage, create bridges, promote axon regeneration, compensate for demylination, replace dead cells

  • parapligia or quadriplegia

Parkinson’s Disease

• • disordered control over movements

  • loss of dopaminergic neurons in pars compacta of substancia nigra

  • actions – increase L-dopa, inhibit degradation by MAO-B, stimulate release of dopamine, block action of Ach in striatum

  • mechanisms – overactive glutamate producing cells affected by free radicals

Stem Cells

• • stem/progenitor cells are self renewing and can be used for gene therapy

  • can differentiate into neurons or glia

  • neurosphere – a clone of cells from a single neural stem cells (multipotent)

  • can be treated with factors for promoting neural differentiation

Other Pathways

• • growth and migration factors

  • functional integration (axon growth and guidance molecules)

  • increase in the number of neurons