- Greek

o Hesiod’s Theogony

o Gaia (fertility) birthed generations of gods

o Cosmos came into being by generalised universal sex drive of nature

- Babylonian

o “Enuma Elish”

o narrates success of hero/god Marduk for supreme power

o Tiamat (sea water) and Apsu (sweet water) mingled together to create the earth

- common themes

o natural forces evolve into anthropomorphic gods

o pathogenic replaced by sexual reproduction

o strife is the catalyst for revolution

o power originally belongs to the female, but is then taken over by the male (usually through violence)

o Man’s Creation

§ gods want to destroy mankind for no reason

§ one man and one woman survive

§ survival is due to divine intervention

§ episode end with reconciliation

o The King of the Gods

§ Devour their children to maintain power

§ It is foretold that their youngest (male) child will overthrow them

§ The child is assisted, or kept alive by their mother

§ There is a progressive establishment of divine order

The Hellenistic Period

- after Alexander the Great

- the end of city states and the launch of empires, which are then plagued with instability and strife

- myths needed to be reinterpreted radically, because there were historical and social changes, not a static society

- mythic heritage in two streams

o Homer

o Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides

- Hellenistic people can not enjoy the same drama, because they are now a mix of cultures

o people are sick of wars

o self-centred issues

- Gods become literary characters, not the cause of fate

- the main character is not always a hero

- Hellenistic poetry is full of oblique references to ancient Greek mythology, need to be well read to understand it

Pastoral Myth

- deals with rustic life

- very unrealistic

- has conventional themes, a set time/space (Spring or Summer)

- beginning of the Greek Novel

o troubled love of two protagonists, with exotic settings and a happy ending

All notes are Copyright Monash University.

- bridged the dark ages and Archaic period

- part of a politically fragmented world, confusing and uncertain life, dependant on War-Lords for protection

- beginning of Greek’s travelling more, plying seas and trading abroad

- the Homeric Hero

o “doer of deeds” = strong, brave and skilled at fighting

o “speaker of words” = persuasive, get warriors to follow easily

o not worth living without honour (better to go out with a bang)

§ have to honour the gods, especially the patron one

§ honour is from the battlefield, hunting and athletics

§ wisdom is a minor honour

§ material representation of honour, such as an enemies’ armour or female slaves/concubines

- Heroic Pattern

o Noble birth

o Son of a God

o At birth, life is put in danger

o There is a triumph over beasts

o A journey to the Underworld

- Homeric Sins

o Recklessness, hubris (excessive pride)

o Orders justice of the gods

All notes Copyright Monash University.

- death with birth, death and growth, very secretive

- initiation/mysteries/rites of passage, sexual initiation, resurrection as an adult

- Eros is a creative force, dependant on females, necessity of reproduction, while also showing the dangers of courtship and coupling in temples

- womanhood, governed by Artemis who knows about sex even though she is virginal, the mother goddess.

o Chooses not to marry, so girls must offer her appeasement to avoid her anger when they wed and have children

o Provides a good basic of tragic myth, as she punishes women for premarital sex

o Girls pretended to be bears/deer and hunted/killed each other so that they could be re-born as women. Bears/deer both sacred to Artemis

o Races held in isolation, a lot of danger, rape, abduction etc.

o Not continued after the classical ages, because it was too expensive and dangerous, instead they created myths of women roaming the wild only when mad (needed marital sex to become sane)

- manhood, young men roamed the wilderness presumably in the shape of wild animals

o had to fend for themselves, so that they could then accept and appreciate the bonds of society and marriage (reject the animal within)

o also dressed as women to prove their manhood (by focus and impregnation). Example in Euripides’ Bacchae of King having to dress as a woman and enjoying it, therefore undermining his manhood (he performs a woman’s treachery in spying on the real women)

- underworld myth, sacred to Demeter, Elusian Mysteries

o preliminary rites part of the lesser Elusian mysteries, participated in by anyone who could pay enough

o greater mysteries of the initiation proper, and the epopleia – complete revelation and sigh of holy objects (only for those who had been initiated before)

- Orphic Mysteries, scared to Dionysus

o for embracing death

~Darkthorn

- The tales a society tells itself to explain natural phenomena, promote important values, and establish social norms

- They were very important in teaching people about their relation to the divine

- Define everything on which human existence depends

- Provide an explanation for death and the seasons

- Story patterns and quests, follow guidelines.

- Preserves history, explains archaeology to the ancients

- Many different interpretations of myth, not a homogenised collection, no true one, all are correct

Copyright Monash University

What is a monster? According to Bulfinch[1] monsters are terrible beings of unnatural structure and proportions, strength and ferocity, which challenge men. Monsters exist in order to give heroes something to contest, something to bring meaning into their otherwise deficient lives. Although the main function of monsters often is to be killed, they frequently have other important roles to play.

‘Monster’ is a subjective concept. For Heracles, the Cretan Bull is a monster to be captured, furthering Heracles’ heroic status (his seventh task). Contrastingly, for Queen Pasiphae, the bull is an object of sexual desire which fathers the Minotaur[2]. Theseus finally kills the bull[3]. Bringing new monsters, such as the Minotaur, into the world, gives heroes an everlasting stream of phenomena to help or hinder them in their heroic quests. In effect, the monster’s capture or death makes the hero.

Monsters are what make a myth, a myth. Monsters promote the storyline, holding the audience’ interest; without them the myth would become simply a dry history. Even Herodotus’ legendary Histories[4] involves the appearance of mythological monsters which illustrate the events.

Heracles’ labours[5] would hardly exist without monsters to kill or capture. It is almost as if monsters and heroes are interdependent, for without monsters, heroes would be less heroic. This had a huge impact on the ancient community, for heroes represented the step between common people and the gods. Heroes provided this important link because they had direct contact with the divine. In the era when the myths were first told, they often related spiritual insight and religious doctrine, which took the place of scientific explanations for unusual occurrences. D. S. Lamb describes how monstrous births and the study of embryology bring to light combinations of organic forms that resemble monsters – the mythology of evolution[6].

Monsters and myth were important in explaining everyday events. Monsters such as the Hydra may have been related to the appearance of two-headed cattle and sheep, and so justified the Greeks’ killing the troublesome animals. The same might have applied to the Cretan Bull for example: this raging monster could be compared to an ordinary bull that had taken to charging shepherds. Ordinary men in such circumstances could raise their own status by emulating the heroes of the old tales.

It could even be argued that some gods are monsters. When performing dishonourable deeds, such as impregnating mortal women, they often take the shape of beasts. This shape-shifting nature, often coupled with crafty deception of the gods’ own spouses (Zeus’ unfaithfulness), causes much harm to the mortals it involves. If this line of thought is continued, it may be concluded that some women have monstrous qualities, tricking men and causing havoc in Greek society. This especially applies to Medea, to whom Jason refers as an ‘unclean, child-murdering monster’[7]. She uproots the basis of Greek civilization, bringing her barbarous ideas from Colchis. She destroys a king and his daughter, as well as her own children[8]. Medea is not killed however, even though her deeds are monstrous[9]. Her end is triumphant as she is borne aloft into the Heavens[10]. Monsters, like gods, were held in awe.

A deep distrust or fear of the feminine principle finds similar expression in Scylla, a once beautiful maiden who is changed into a six-headed monster by the witch Circe. Homer describes Scylla:

“yelping hideously; her voice is no deeper than a young puppy’s but she herself is a fearsome monster… She has twelve feet all dangling down, six long necks with a grisly head on each of them, and in each head a triple row of crowded and close-set teeth, fraught with black death.”^[11]

She hides from the world in a cave high up on a cliff, and seizes 6 crew members from every vessel in reach[12]. Her attempts at this are aided by Charybdis, a treacherous whirlpool directly opposite from Scylla[13]. Charybdis distracts Odysseus and his crew from watching for Scylla, and he looses his six best men to the monster[14]. The myth of Scylla and Charybdis would have helped the Greeks to reconcile themselves with why so many seamen did not return from their travels. It also celebrated the fearlessness of the sailors traversing the waters.

An entire myth was created to explain Scylla’s origins[15]. Rather than springing from nowhere to be killed, Scylla has her own history, which gives storytellers more to work with. The creation of Scylla, out of the jealousy of Circe, is just as important as her death[16].

A complete contrast to these ugly, vicious monsters is Pegasus. Although Pegasus is born of Medusa, he is tamed by Athene and does not display any negative qualities or ill-will towards humans[17]. Due to his unnatural state (a flying horse), he is a monster. But rather than being killed, this beautiful creature assists Bellerophon to slay the Chimaera[18].

Sirens, lovely sea-nymphs, are part of the troubles encountered by Odysseus on his long journey home. Forewarned by the witch Circe, Odysseus fills the ears of his seamen with wax so that they cannot hear the Sirens’ wonderful, terrible songs[19]. The Sirens’ songs charm seamen to throw themselves into the surf or steer their ships towards the treacherous rocks to reach them[20]. The sirens, in their beauty, have a monstrous power. Indirectly they are killed by a hero when Odysseus sails past, unmoved by their song.

“And [Odysseus] shall slay the triple daughters…self-hurled from the cliff’s top they dive with their wings into the Tyrrhenian Sea, where the bitter thread spun by the Fates shall draw them.”^[21]

Without the Sirens, and other monsters, Homer’s poem would lose much of its interest for the listener. The various monsters, although adapted from previous stories, give the writer flexibility to use imagination. The Odyssey and Iliad would be dry tales if they explored the war and subsequent homeward journeys with only human participants.

“For his second labour Herakles was instructed to slay the Lernaian Hydra…. [which used to] raid flocks and ruin the land. The Hydra was of enormous size, with eight mortal heads, and a ninth one in the middle that was immortal… he was unable to help matters by striking her with his club, for as soon as one head was pounded off two others would grow in its place. Then a giant crab came along to help the Hydra… Iolaos made some torches… and, by using these to burn the buddings of the heads, he kept them from growing… Herakles lopped off the immortal head… He cut up the Hydra’s body and dipped his arrows in its venom.”^[22]

A giant crab, made monstrous by its unnatural size, serves to distract Heracles so that the Hydra might kill him. However, this just makes Heracles more determined, and he asks his cousin to help him. The interplay between the Hydra and the crab allows the writer to show the importance of teamwork, both by the monsters and by Heracles and Iolaos. This drama exerts a fascination over the audience, because it is so exotic and frightening. There is also a suggestion of the scientific and medical – the primitive ideas of cauterization and venom collection. The Hydra’s venom, like the Lion’s skin, provides a linking device within the narrative.

“First he [Herakles] was assigned to fetch the skin of the Nemeian Lion, an invulnerable animal sired by Typhon . . . He then went to Nemea, found the lion, and shot it first with arrows. But when he knew for sure it was invulnerable, he picked up his club and started after it…He encircled its neck with his arm, and by squeezing choked it to death.”^[23]

Heracles then skins the monster to make a lion-skin cape, which he proceeds to wear in his future exploits. The lion skin allows Heracles to emerge unscathed from other trials.

Centaurs (horse/humans) are a monster-like combination, yet they have redeeming traits. Perhaps the reason Centaurs are not represented entirely as evil monsters is because of their human physiology[24]. Further, for the ancients horses were very important, intelligent and useful so the joining of one with a human was not deemed degrading[25]. Like humans, Centaurs have vices. Harris and Platzner[26] suggest that Heracles himself resembles a centaur, divided as to when violence is appropriate or not. The centaurs embody both wisdom (in the form of Chiron) and bestiality (the Battle of the Lipithae and Centaurs) [27].

Chiron is instructed by Apollo and Diana in the skills of hunting, medicine, music, and the art of prophecy[28]. He is referred to as “Kheiron, most righteous of the Kentauroi.”^[29] Many Greek heroes are his students, including Aesculapius, who, although human, follows in the footsteps of Chiron, becoming a renowned physician – able to restore the dead to life[30]. Chiron’s tragic death occurs at the hands of Heracles, who mistakenly shoots him with an arrow coated in Hydra-poison.

“you, immortal now… will long to die when you are tortured by the serpent’s blood… saved from immortality, the gods shall put you in death’s power, and the three Goddesses shall unloose your threads of fate.” ^[31]

Eventually Chiron gives up his immortality to release Prometheus from torture. Befitting his background as a ‘monster’, Chiron is transformed merely into a constellation, whereas the hero Heracles will be elevated to divine status[32].

It was common for mythology to convert monsters into constellations after their deaths. This assisted navigation by the stars and explained the various shapes formed. If monsters existed only to be killed, they would just die, not remain in the skies to remind the people about heroes’ exploits! Chiron didn’t die in vain; it was for a noble cause.

Centaurs were a whole race of mythical creatures. Some like Chiron followed noble causes; others indulged in villainous exploits. Centaurs were often guests at human gatherings, most notably the marriage of Pirithous with Hippodamia.

“For Eurytus, the fiercest of the fierce Centauri, was fired by wine and by the sight of that fair girl, and drink was in command, doubled by lust. Tables were overturned, the banquet in confusion, and the bride, held by her hair, was seized and carried off.”^[33]

Other Centaurs “seize[d] what girl each would or could”[34]. The race of Centaurs is almost wiped out in the ensuing “Battle of the Lapithae and Centaurs”[35]. It completes the study of a culture within a complex fantasy world. Certainly many centaurs are killed but in no way is that their reason for existence.

Seemingly a simpler matter, the Stymphalian Birds are man-eating birds which haunt Lake Stymphalis in Arkadia, and Heracles uses his ingenuity to kill them^[36]. Hunting down a flock of ordinary pigeons that were merely destroying farmers’ crops, would have done nothing for a hero’s – or storyteller’s – status, whereas man-eating birds make a thrilling tale of adventure. The Thracian horses too are described as man-eating[37]. Heracles is required to tame these horses, thus freeing the countryside from their terrifying influence. It is not necessary to kill the horses, in fact it would be detrimental if Heracles did, because they are valuable stock (the ancestors of Alexander the Great’s own steed)[38]. Heracles is protecting the people, as well as proving his courage and elevating his notoriety. These are useful tasks that benefit society, made compelling by the monsters concerned. Silk[39] states that Heracles is a civilizer, founding cities, springs and festivals.

Another lion monster, the Sphinx, is portrayed in Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex”, a very subtle examination of the human psyche. The city of Thebes is afflicted by the Sphinx, which halts the progress of all travelers, who have to answer a riddle to save their lives[40]. Oedipus answers the riddle, the Sphinx allows him to pass and Oedipus refrains from killing her[41]. However, the Sphinx is so humiliated at the solving of the riddle that she throws herself off her rock and perishes. In gratitude the citizens of Thebes give Oedipus their queen in marriage[42]. The Sphinx has existed to prevent Oedipus from passing into the city and fulfilling the dreadful prophesy of his fate. There is profound irony in the idea that Oedipus’ cleverness indirectly causes the Sphinx’ death, which brings him an inevitable punishment worse than death.

Ultimately, monsters contribute to mythology in many ways; they certainly do not exist only to be killed, although their deaths are usually meaningful. Monsters carry spiritual, social and scientific significance specific to each text. They are essential to myth as an art form, central to ancient culture. Monsters enable authors of many genres, oral, written and performed, to exercise the imagination, creating intriguing creatures and sometimes complex situations, images of beauty or fascination that have often become iconic. Heroes would scarcely exist without monsters to challenge, yet monsters might well exist without heroes to kill them.

References

Bulfinch, Thomas, “Bulfinch’s Mythology: The Age of Fable” (1855), http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/bulf/index.htm

Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4. 15. 3 – 4, 4. 77. 1 (trans. Oldfather), http://www.theoi.com/Text/DiodorusSiculus4A.html

Euripides, Medea (trans. Kovacs), http://www.theoi.com/Text/EuripidesMedea.html/

Harris S L & Platzner G. Classical Mythology: Images and Insights (4^th ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

Herodotus, Histories (trans. Godley), http://www.theoi.com/

Homer, Iliad 11. 831 – 832 ff (trans. Lattimore), http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomerIliad11.html

Homer, Odyssey 12. 39 ff, 12. 54 ff, 12. 210 – 259 (trans. Shewring), www.theoi.com/Text/HomerOdyssey12.html

Lamb, D. S. “Mythical Monsters”, American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 2, (Apr. – Jun., 1900): 277-291, http://www.jstor.org/stable/659242

Lycophron, Alexandra 712 ff (trans. Mair), www.theoi.com/Text/LycophronAlexandra.html

Nonnus, Dionysiaca 2. 10 ff (trans. Rouse), www.theoi.com/Text/NonnusDionysiaca1.html

Ovid, Metamorphoses 2. 649 ff, 7. 433 ff, 12. 210 ff, 13 .900 – 14. 74 (trans. Melville), www.theoi.com/Text/OvidMetamorphoses1.html

Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 4. 1 (trans. Jones), www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias2C.html

Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 30 – 33, 74 – 80, 92 (trans. Aldrich), http://www.theoi.com/

Silk, M S, “Heracles and Greek Tragedy” (1985), http://www.jstor.org/stable/642295

Euripides could be read superficially as a “realist”, but he frequently presents fragmented worlds described in very formal language. He usually opens his plays with a non-naturalistic prologue in the form of a monologue, then closes them with a detached coda, often by the appearance of a deity. Like Aeschylus, Euripides is innovative, often adapting traditional stories in order to create reoccurring dramatic situations which often focus on female characters.

Aeschylus is described as the greatest innovator and the most imaginative of the Greek Dramatists. In his early works Aeschylus uses two leading actors, as the main interaction of the play is between character and chorus, not from the contact between character and character. The central interest of the play, established by the chorus, is therefore in situations and a build up of tension leading towards a climax. He introduces a third actor to his later plays as a kind of alternative chorus, enabling the main characters to interact. Aeschylus’ lyric style is flexible, contains patterns of language and is usually easier to understand than that of Sophocles. The politics and intricacies of community life are intrinsically linked into Aeschylus’ works.

Sophocles is sometimes described as having a ‘middling’ style. His rich, formal language, following highly structured rules, can be esoteric. Yet he uses it with tact and subtlety, maintaining the pulse of the verse – hardly an average playwright. He also specialises in enacted metaphor and often achieves the powerful effects of the eerie and uncanny. Sophocles’ theatricality is expressed through significant objects and events that promote a connection between gods and men in the form of dreams, oracles and omens.

It can be appreciated that each of these writers has developed a unique style for dramatising the diverse myths of their time.

References

Hornblower, Simon and Antony Spawforth, ed. Oxford Classical Mythology Dictionary. 2003.